Alexander of Halés or Alès,—hence called Alexander Alesius, from the name of his birthplace, near Glocester. Although early raised to an archdeaconry, he resolved to study at Paris, where he quickly became one of the most famous teachers at the most brilliant epoch of the scholastic philosophy. One of his pupils was St. Bonaventura, but it is not true that he had the honour of teaching St. Thomas and Duns Scotus. He died in Paris in 1245. His great work is “Summa Theologiæ.” Aquinas reproduced many of his dicta. He was surnamed in the middle ages, “Infallible Doctor” and “Fountain of Light.”

  As for this our Alexander, as he had the name of that great Conqueror of the World, so was he a grand Captain and Commander in his kind: for, as he did follow Peter Lombard, so he did lead Thomas Aquinas, and all the rest of the Schoole-men. He was the first that wrote a Comment on the Sentences, in a great Volumn, called “The Summe of Divinity,” at the instance of Pope Innocent the Fourth, to whom he dedicated the same. For this, and other of his good services to the Church of Rome, he received the splendid Title of Doctor Irrefragabilis.

  His life was pure and beautiful, his insight clear, and undimmed by passion. Of some of his works it was said by Gerson, two centuries later, that he had been reading them for thirty years, and yet had scarcely attained to a first taste of their sweets, which always presented to him something fresh and delightful whenever he recurred to them.

  He introduced into the theology of Scholasticism the notion of Fate, which he defined to be the co-operation of all causes directed by a higher law. By this he did not intend to infringe upon the notion of free will, because he reckoned it to be one of the co-operating causes. By Fate, all causes free and natural work together in their proper relations, and the actions of free will are only controlled by the connection in which they stand to other causes. He thought that evil served to contribute to the general perfection of the universe, inasmuch as it displayed in fullest measure the essential excellence of goodness. He taught that man was originally created in a state purely human, and that the Divine likeness was afterwards added, being thus an accidental and not an essential portion of the man, and showing the distinction between a state of nature and a state of grace even in man primæval. Grace was not created in man, but was reserved until by reason he had become fit to receive it. On the subject of the sinner’s justification, he taught that no certain knowledge was vouchsafed, because Divine grace did not come within the circle of knowledge, either as to its cause or mode, and a man could only judge of his salvation by the measure of light, peace, and joy he experienced inwardly. The uncertainty arising from this condition he considered would have a helpful effect upon the believer by leading him to greater watchfulness, and by supplying an urgent stimulus to constant progress. He strongly dissented from the view of Augustine and other Church teachers concerning the freedom of man and the operation of Divine grace on the soul, and taught that the measure of grace received by the soul was entirely conditioned by the willingness or otherwise of the soul to receive it.

  Alexander’s reputation secured for him the honourable titles of “Doctor Irrefragabilis,” “Doctor doctorum,” “Theologorum monarcha,” and the like, but his operose work has only historic value. On no point of general interest does it furnish any hint that was fruitful for after-thinkers, nor was it of much effect as stimulating discussion even in its own age. Roger Bacon sarcastically remarks that the very Franciscans did not concern themselves with it, but allowed the huge manuscript to rot and corrupt.